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∫aìlôñguaj
Phonology ∫aìlôñguaj uses 25 consonants and 10 vowels. All vowels can be rhoticized; two vowels (i/ı) can take tones (extra high, rising, falling, mid, and none). There is no standard ordering or grouping for consonants and vowels. Consonants Vowels Phonotactics Writing System *Used in the middle of words, whereas ÿ is used at the beginning. **When this letter is followed by another vowel, the vowel in [] disappears and is replaced by the next vowel. †This letter is used to show an elision has occurred. Grammar Nouns Declension '' *Objective The standard form of any noun is objective form, suitable for use when the noun is the object of the sentence. : ÿoc '''kôk' xugão, zaua zahítonaì. : As the King rules '''the country', the people love the king. '' Nouns in the objective form may be the subject of a sentence if they are properly set off by a particle. : ÿoc''' amakôk sì hítsíqíkmín '''fôndlô aßêç, ua sonaß npa. : As '''America' has a democratic constitution, it does not have a king.'' *Subjective The subjective form allows a noun to be combined with a verb to show that the given noun is the subject of that verb. Subjective nouns are only used in independent clauses. Nouns in the subjective form always end in -on. : híton'''guajlè. : ''The people met. '' Nouns ending in ô and a decline into the subjective form by dropping the terminal vowel and replacing it with -ºon. : '''pê:cºoníxlè. : The person '''wrote. '' ''Plurality *Formation Nouns are made plural by the substitution of -ºèn for the terminal vowel in words ending in ô or a, or by the addition of -èn to all other words. ÿoc tuagè '''kôkèn xugão, tejkua zauºonua. As the King rules three '''countries', the King is an emperor. '' zagè xouºèn lonua. They are all of '''the vice-roys'.'' *Order The plural suffix is added before any other grammatical suffix. : hítènon'''guajlè. : ''The peoples''' met. '' : pê:cºènoníxlè. : The persons 'wrote. ''Possession *Common Possessive Nouns are made possessive by the additiong of dè between the possessor and the possessed. : zaua '''dè kôk. : The King's''' country. *Literary Possessive The qualifying particle za can be used to express possession in situations where a high degree of formality requires the possessed precede the possessor. : Tejkua '''za Larjaptejkkôk. : The Emperor of the 'Great Japanese Empire. ''Counting '' *Superlative When something is the best version of something, or is the only of something, or comes first in a series, it is counted with the counter za built into the front of the noun. : ∫aìzyñ sì, ∫aìkôk dè '''zavílon'ua. : ∫aìzyñ is '''the capital city of the ∫aìkôk. : síjwmín aßsoì zaxí sonua. : It's the only free time '''I have. When zagè is used before a noun, this signifies that it is the first in a series. : kèße dè '''zagè torejn sonua. : It is today's first train. *Enumerative Any noun must be counted using a number plus the suffix -gè. : nígè xêvèn monaß. : I have two horses. The numbers build on a base-10 system that builds from the smallest unit to the largest, where groups of numbers add from left to right and powers are connected by the multiplying particle mè. Numbers are constructed in the following patterns: 19 non díêz 37 hêpt tuamèdíêz 954 yo cìnmèdíêz nonmècên 1877 hêpt hêptmèdíêz ôkmècên míl : ôk nímèdíêzgè '''veèn sonaß. : There are '''28 days. Decimals are expressed after any whole number to which they belong, in the same form as whole numbers, except that the multiplying particle is -mí-, and the decimal is introduced by the word unc. 3.14 tua unc yo díêz 115.25 cìn díêz cên unc cìn nímídíêz : cìn yomèdíêz unc cìn hêptmídíêzgè fílèn sonaß. : There are 45.75 stones. Adjectives Adjectives have no declension to match their nouns. Adjectives may appear at the end of a sentence before a verb. When used to describe a noun in the sentence, adjectives always precede the noun they modify, and take the suffix -mín. : ro∂mín ÿam monmï. : I see the red mountain. : ro∂ '''sonua. : It is '''red. Pronouns Pronouns decline heavily and behave at once as prefixes, suffixes, and individual words. *Roots Personal pronouns contain relatively stable roots to indicate the number and person to whom they refer. *This pronoun is used in second-person situations where the speaker has no information about the position of the other party. It is not used to express politeness to someone the speaker knows; it is only meant for situtations where the speaker does not know the interlocutor. : voì huºonua? : Who are you? : kèplac vojon'''fumkè npa. : '''You cannot smoke here. **This pronoun is used in third-person situations where the speaker is indicating a particular person or thing. This pronoun is also used with non-personal concepts. : Tô son'''aì. : '''He loves you. : Nañ lon'''xa? : What do '''they know? †This pronoun is used in third-person situations where the speaker does not know the identity of the particular person serving as the antecedent. This pronoun is never used to refer to other than people. : Huô mïsoìlè ÿosa monxa npa. : I don't know whom I saw. : ßangè tokèn honºon'''ua? : '''Who are the men from before? ††This pronoun is used in third-person situations where the speaker intends to generalize an action applying to all people who could be the antecedent. : fualveèn ion'''rêsp. : '''One breathes every day. *Objective Pronouns in the objective form are used as words. : sô monman. : I eat it. *Subjective Pronouns in the subjective are only found in independent clauses; they are treated as prefixes of the verb. *Genitive* Pronouns in the genitive are only found in dependent clauses. They are treated as prefixes to nouns to demonstrate possession. : mí'''têt. : '''My head. : tên'''ama. : '''Your soul. *In independent clauses, pronouns are made possessive by adding the word dè between the pronoun and the possessed. : mô dè hejm. : My home. : voì dè kôk. : Your country. *Reflexive Reflexive pronouns are used to express situations where the subject and object of the sentence are the same. : mwên monaì. : I love myself. : mô dè bískuíèn honºí a man honºonaplè? : Who ate my buiscuits? [Who fed themselves my biscuits?] *Incorporative Pronouns in the incorporative are treated as suffixes to verbs and adverbs to show a personal involvement with, benefit from, or harm from the actions or actions described. : un'ma' a ßa tonßol? : Do you want to go with me? : ÿo'sa' monxa npa. : I do not know that. [I do not know as''' such'.] *Paraverbal Paraverbal pronouns are used to stand in for or as suffixes and infixes to verbs in dependent clauses. : tênhanx monïlè npa. to mô mï'hej'lèxí, huºoneßelè. : I didn't catch what you were saying. Who ran away when '''they' saw me? : man'suñ'lèlè ÿosa xa'soì'lè zagè xí, age a man lonßollè. : At the moment I '''realized '''they had eaten, they wanted to eat again. In addition to these, there exists another paraverbal pronoun for official acts of state. This pronoun is gão. : ßan kèlen fy'gão'lè, ÿoc qutadêlô sonÿoñçlè. : Before the king enfeoffed this land, it was used as a citadel. *Non-personal interrogatory pronouns Any concept can be made interrogatory by adding the prefix nañ-, which is also a separate word meaning "what." : Nañ'xí nonßala? : When will we go? ['What time will we go?] : Nañ a man tonßol? : What do you want to eat? : Nañ'''gè? : '''Which one? *Relative pronouns Relative pronouns take the form of prefixes; they are used depending on the distance of the object in question from the speaker and the interlocutor. : kè'''ona huºonua? : Who is '''this woman? : qè'''gè sì tô dè xíkonua? : Is '''that yours? Verbs *Degree of Dependence The conjugation of a verb depends on whether it appears in a dependent or independent clause. Dependent Clauses In dependent clauses, verbs take paraverbal pronoun suffixes to indicate person. They then accept suffixes to establish tense, mood, and negation. Independent Clauses In independent clauses, verbs take subjective pronoun prefixes to indicate person. They then accept suffixes to establish tense and mood. Negation is carried out by a separate word. *Tense and Mood For both dependent and independent verbs, the following suffixes are added directly after the verb, and before any negation, to indicate time and mood. The plain form of a verb is its indicative present form. : ton'ßakè'! : you Go! : sô ßon'manlè'? : Did you eat it? : to ßaêçkèla 'xí, ô: ad sô ton'aplalè. : When he will be able to go, you will have given him money. *Voice To indicate a passive voice construction, the suffix -ç follows the verb, before any tense or mood suffix. In independent clauses, the subject of a passive verb is written in the subjective and affixed to the verb; in dependent clauses, it is written in the objective. The agent of the passive verb is set off by the particle sì, in both dependent and independent clauses. : zafôndlô sì zaua dè pubqíkon'kreèç'lè. : The King's political mandate was created 'by the constitution. *Negation Negation comes at the very end of a verbal phrase. Its form changes for dependent and independent verbs. ''Dependent Clauses In dependent clauses, negation is achieved by adding -í to the end of the verb. : íkoc laìêçí'.... : Because he did '''not' come.... The -í suffix adds irregularly to soì, transforming the word to sojí. Note the pronunciation is not identical to "sõí" but is instead sojí. : ÿoc fhrancôn so'jí'.... : As I am not French.... When used with a tense or mood marker, -í combines with a terminal -è to form -eì and a terminal -a to form -aì. : ÿoc manêckèla'ì'.... : As you will not be able to eat... : ÿoc sô mïsoìlèle'ì'.... : As I had not seen it.... Independent Clauses For independent clauses, negation is achieved by adding the word npa after the verbal phrase. : monua npa. : I am not. : soneßelè npa. : He did not run away. Category:Languages